by Eugenia Manolidou
The Greek Carnival, with its disguises, satirical songs, and Dionysian celebrations, has roots that go deep into history. The festival of Anthesteria, the Eleusinian Mysteries, and the worship of Dionysus shaped the carnival traditions that have survived to this day and are part of a long series of festivals and customs that prove the continuity of Greek civilization. The mythical abduction of Persephone, symbolizing the cycle of death and rebirth, was the foundation of the Eleusinian Mysteries. At the same time, the Dionysian cult gave birth to Anthesteria, a three-day festival that closely resembles modern-day Greek Carnival. The ancient Greeks wore masks and disguises, sang satirical songs, and celebrated the arrival of spring, while also honoring the dead, as later established with Soul Saturday (Psychosavvato).
The word “Apokries” (Carnival) derives from the Greek word “apokreō”, meaning “abstaining from meat”, as it leads into the Lenten fast. A similar meaning is carried by the Latin phrase “carne vale” (“farewell to meat”), from which the word “carnival” is derived. Likewise, the satirical songs of Carnival have their origins in Dionysian satire and come from the Greek verb “skōptō”, meaning “to mock, to jest, to ridicule”. Through these songs, people could freely express their emotions, satirize authority, and celebrate without restrictions, just as they do today. However, disguises were not merely for satire or entertainment. In Dionysian rituals, people transformed into satyrs and mythical beingsto honor the god of ecstasy and wine. Masks offered anonymity, freedom from social conventions, and at the same time, had an apotropaic power to ward off evil spirits. This ancient practice survives today in Carnival traditions, such as the Bell-Wearers (Koudounoforoi) in Thrace and the Genitsari and Boules in Naoussa, where disguises and ritualistic movements directly echo ancient cults.
Of course, Dionysus, the god of wine, fertility, and ecstasy, played a central role in the ceremonies that preceded Carnival. The Anthesteria was a three-day festival in his honor, celebrated in Athens during the month of Anthesterión (February-March), with festivities that strongly resemble today’s Carnival.
- Pithoigia (Opening of the Jars): On the first day, the new wine was opened, and everyone participated in an atmosphere of drunken merriment.
- Choes (Pitchers): On the second day, people wore peculiar disguises, competed in wine-drinking contests, and sang satirical songs, much like today’s Carnival festivities.
- Chytroi (Pots): The third day had a strong connection to the dead, as offerings were made to the spirits, similar to Soul Saturday (Psychosavvato).
The transition from ancient festivals to modern-day Carnival happened gradually and naturally. Soul Saturday preserved the tradition of Chytroi, where the ancient Greeks offered food to the dead. The polysporia – a mixture of boiled grains, such as wheat, lentils, chickpeas, and especially pomegranate, symbolizing fertility and connection to the Underworld – survived in Christian memorial services and agrarian rituals. According to myth, Persephone ate pomegranate seeds in Hades, forcing her to return to the Underworld for six months each year, affirming the cycle of nature and rebirth. This ancient custom played a significant role in the agricultural rites of Demeter, and later, it passed into Byzantine and modern Greek traditions, where the consumption of boiled grains (kollyva) remains an integral part of remembrance ceremonies. The festivals of Dionysus preserved the spirit of intoxication, joy, and disguise, while satirical performances continue in Carnival celebrations across Greece. Despite the passage of centuries, Greeks still celebrate with the same spontaneity, the same need for joy, laughter, and social bonding.
At Elliniki Agogi, School of Ancient Greek, children today learn about the origins of the festival, bring ancient myths to life through theatrical performances in Ancient Greek, and, without even realizing it, become part of the very history they are learning. Through experiential learning, they master the language, history, culture, and traditions, experiencing them not as abstract knowledge but as a living connection to their roots. In this way, we all become part of the unbroken chain of Greek civilization, which continues uninterrupted through the centuries.
Experiential learning is the foundation of education at Elliniki Agogi, as we do not limit ourselves to language instruction but give children the opportunity to live Greek tradition through role-playing, theatrical re-enactments, and interactive storytelling. For example, during this season, our younger students, in their first level of Ancient Greek, dramatize the myth of Persephone’s Abduction. Under the guidance of their teachers, they speak in Ancient Greek, embody mythical characters, and interact in a fully immersive linguistic environment. Here is an example of how Ancient Greek comes to life in our classroom:
MYTH: THE ABDUCTION OF PERSEPHONE
Ἀφήγησις: Ἡμέραν τινὰ ἡ Περσεφόνη παίζει ἐν κήπῳ πλήρει ἀνθῶν καὶ δένδρων. Ὁρᾷ ἄνθος καλὸν καὶ μέγα.
Περσεφόνη: Ὑπέροχον τοῦτο τὸ ἄνθος ἐστί! Κόψω πάραυτα αὐτό!
Ἀφήγησις: Ἐξαίφνης, ἡ γῆ σείεται καὶ ἀνοίγει καὶ ἐμφανίζεται ὁ Πλούτων ἐπὶ τὸ ἅρμα. Ἁρπάζει τὴν Περσεφόνην καὶ εἰς τὸν Κάτω Κόσμον ἄγει.
Πλούτων: Ἐλθὲ μετ’ ἐμοῦ, ὦ Περσεφόνη! Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ βασιλεὺς τοῦ Κάτω Κόσμου καὶ σὺ βασίλισσα ἔσει.
Περσεφόνη: Μῆτερ! Ὦ, μῆτερ! Βοήθει μοι!
Δήμητρα: Περσεφόνη, ὦ γλυκύτατόν μου τέκνον, ποῦ εἶ; Ζητῶ σε πανταχοῦ. Οὐχ ὁρῶ καρπούς, οὐχ ὁρῶ ἄνθη… Λυποῦμαι, λυποῦμαι…
Ζεύς: Πλοῦτον, ἄκουσον. Ἄφες τὴν Περσεφόνην! Ἡ Δημήτηρ δυστυχής ἐστιν, οἱ ἄνθρωποι πεινῶσιν.
Πλούτων: Καλῶς. Ἐγὼ ἀφήσω αὐτήν, ἀλλά… δώσω τῇ κόρῃ σπόρους ῥοιᾶς. Οὕτως, οὐ δύναται μένειν εἰς τὴν γῆν ἐσαεί.
Ἀφήγησις: Ἔαρ καὶ Θέρος ἐστίν. Ἡ Περσεφόνη μετὰ τῆς μητρὸς μένει καὶ τότε ἡ γῆ ἀνθῶν καὶ καρπῶν γέμει. Φθινόπωρον καὶ Χειμών ἐστιν. Ἡ Περσεφόνη εἰς τὸν Κάτω Κόσμον βαίνῃ καὶ οὐδὲν θάλλει ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς.
Bibliography
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- Aristophanes. (1998). Acharnians and Thesmophoriazusae. Athens: Kaktos.
- Herodotus. (1988). Histories. Book 2.48-49. Translation: A. Vlachos. Athens: Papadimas Publications.
- Apollodorus. (1999). Library. A’ 5,1-3. Athens: Kaktos.
- Homeric Hymn to Demeter. (2005). Lines 2-495. Translation: Th. Mavropoulos. Athens: Zitros.
- Nikolaos Politis. (1965). Traditions – Studies on the Life and Language of the Greek People. Athens: Ergani.
- Domna Samiou. (1994). Carnival Songs. Athens: Domna Samiou Greek Music Center.
- Philological Team of Elliniki Agogi. (2025). Myth Transcription: The Abduction of Persephone. Athens: Elliniki Agogi.